Suchergebnisse

Luxembourg is a prototypical small state and the only remaining example of over a two dozen of grand duchies in history. In this chapter the focus is laid on persistency and change of governance in security affairs, that is, the question of how a Luxembourg political entity overcame a variety of challenges of the (European) security environment until 1940. Indeed, to comprehend the 'survival' of the Grand Duchy in face of the vicissitudes of the military-political setting since the princedom's creation by the Treaty of Vienna (1815), one needs to deploy the full array of the Small-State theory debate in security policy and in the politics of international relations: bandwagoning, balancing, freeriding, hedging, shelter-seeking. Based on this longue durée approach, the contribution expands on 'extantism' to reintroduce this concept to Small-State Studies.

This article discusses funerary politics in relationship to the political culture of the small state of Luxembourg in northwest Europe during the age of modernisation. During the long nineteenth century, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg experienced several political changes which affected sepulcral culture, but this did not lead to a 'Kulturkampf' over cemeteries between the Church and the State as is occurred in neighbouring countries. Disputes were resolved at the local level. We apply small power theory to explain the relatively harmonious co-existence of State power with the Catholic clergy, and hightlight the important role of local government. For the top-down introduction of cremation, we need ot change scale and focus on an urban elite setting the national agenda. Luxembourg was one of the last member states of the European Union to place body/earth burial andd cremation on an equal legal footing and its own 'national' crematorium only opened in the 1990s.

During the 1980s, refugee camps along the Thai–Cambodian border constituted the power base for the civil war parties opposing the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK, 1979–91). Politics of accommodation and basic services also played a key role in the 'original accumulation' of political power by the new regime in Phnom Penh. The resettlement process of Cambodia's deserted cities developed into a major playground for clientelism, the founda-tion of Cambodia's state-building process after the Khmer Rouge. Focusing on the archival heritage of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cam-bodia (UNTAC) 1992–93, a spatial analysis of Phnom Penh's political geography from the late 1970s to the late 1990s will be provided. This paper argues that the UNTAC time marked a watershed, whose impact has been underrated for Cambodia's political future: the transition in the accommodation policy of a besieged regime. UNTAC did not end the civil war, but changed the political economy of the country. As the need to 'camp-in' and share billeted living space gradually diminished, the socialist 'moral economy' mutated into quick money politics and political family business to ensure the hegemonic status of Cambodia's ruling party further.

Der vorliegende Band ist ein umfassendes Werk zur Stadtgeschichte und Stadtentwicklung von Phnom Penh von 1860 bis 2010, in dem ein weiter Bogen von der Stadtentwicklung während der französischen Kolonialherrschaft und den verschiedenen Phasen der Herrschaft der Khmer-Eliten über die Schreckensherrschaft des Khmer Rouge-Regimes bis hin zur parlamentarischen Monarchie seit 1993 spannt. Der interdisziplinäre Untersuchungsansatz, der nicht nur auf die Zugänge der historischen Wissenschaften und der Stadtgeographie zurückgreift, sondern auch Perspektiven der Politikwissenschaft, Soziologie und Architektur miteinbezieht, sollte das Werk nicht nur für Historiker/innen und Geograph/innen interessant machen, sondern darüber hinaus auch für eine generell an Stadtentwicklungsprozessen in Südostasien interessierte Leserschaft. Ausgangspunkte der umfassenden historisch-geographischen Analysen, in denen eine Fülle von bislang noch nicht wissenschaftlich bearbeitetem bzw. öffentlich nicht zugänglichem Quellen- und Archivmaterial, vor allem aus der Zeit des französischen Protektorats, ausgewertet wurde, sind zwei unterschiedliche Entwicklungsphasen, die gleichzeitig markante Zäsuren in der Stadtentwicklung darstellen: nämlich einerseits die Etablierung von Phnom Penh als Kolonialstadt in der Doppelfunktion sowohl als Sitz der französischen Protektoratsverwaltung als auch des kontinuierlich an Einfluss verlierenden Khmer-Königtums von den 1860er-Jahren bis zur Unabhängigkeit 1953 und andererseits der "Neustart" von Phnom Penh durch seine "Wiederbesiedlung" nach der Vertreibung der Khmer Rouge im Jahr 1979. Tatsächlich stellt Phnom Penh mit der radikalen De-Urbanisierung der Stadt während der Pol Pot-Zeit und der anschließenden Re-Urbanisierung wohl einen einmaligen Sonderfall in der jüngeren Geschichte Südostasiens dar, quasi eine "Laborsituation", die eine Reihe interessanter Analyseperspektiven ermöglicht. ; Abhandlungen zur Geographie und Regionalforschung, Band 17

THE 'TYRANNY OF THE LINE': CITY PLANNING IN COLONIAL PHNOM PENH, 1860s – 1940s. Thomas Kolnberger Université du Luxembourg, FLSHASE (Faculty of Language and Literature, Humanities, Arts and Education), Research Unit IPSE (Identités.Politique.Sociétés.Espaces), Campus Walferdange, Route de Diekirch (B.P.2), L-7201 Walferdange, Luxemburg This paper aims to highlight the role and influence of both 'colonizer' and 'colonized' on place and space. Their specific purposes are part of a process of mise-en-valeur of the French colonial regime on the one side and indigenous commodification of city space, examined here as a form of "bandwagoning", on the other side. Cities in general are disputed places with regard to questions of urban development, planning and social control. Colonial cites in particular became central places for steering and enhancing the productivity of the entire colonial society. Thus, new urban structures were designed to house the agencies of an unequal relationship. The production of this particular space, however, was at no time a purely top-down process, imposed by the 'colonizer' on the 'colonized'. In the very moment of the foundation of the colonial town, indigenous actors took the city as an opportunity, as a "structure and agency" for pursuing their very own interests. Colonial Phnom Penh is a good example to review these interactive processes under the following aspects: - 'clash of civilizations': Traditional French and Khmer linear planning as rivaling 'top-down' processes in a shared town - 'grass-root urban planning': The 'bottom-up' production of space of the indigenous city dwellers - 'tyranny of the line': The "social engineering" of the colonial city by land rents, building codes and regulations as grid squares The study is based on historical-critical analysis of archival sources in Cambodia (National Archives of Cambodia, Phnom Penh) and France (National Overseas Archives of France, Aix-en-Provence) with a focus on public works, maps, and photos.

The struggle to belong Dealing with diversity in 21st century urban settings. Amsterdam, 7-9 July 2011 Eye contact, clientele alignment & laissez-faire: the production of public space and neighbourhood in Phnom Penh, Cambodia Thomas Kolnberger(*) Paper presented at the International RC21 conference 2011 Session: Nr. 12 – Belonging, exclusion, public and quasi-public space (*) Université du Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Research Unit IPSE (Identité, Politiques, Sociètes, Espace) Universität Passau, BR Deutschland Southeast Asian Studies thomas.kolnberger@uni.lu Overview Private, public or quasi-public spaces are terms that seem particularly difficult to apply to non-Western societies: as in the 'West', their boundaries are fluid and routinely transgressed, but in ways that are distinctive to the local situation and history. This paper is arguing that these concepts retain practical descriptive power, particularly for the city of Phnom Penh, a case study of demographic extremes, as nearly all her inhabitants could be classified as immigrants. In deed, the Khmer Rouge had forcefully evicted the ca. two million people-strong population of the capital in 1975, virtually erasing all 'bourgeois urbanity' during Pol Pot's Cambodian 'auto-genocide'. After the fall of the regime, the new socialist government slowly repopulated the deserted metropolis with new urban dwellers. Their social and spatial belonging needed to be set up from scratch. "Who belongs to whom" (in terms of political clientelism and patronage), "who is doing what" (regarding face-to-face control and eye contact investigation), and "who owns what" (concerning redistribution and also new original accumulation of capital) were the essential questions in this 'struggle to belong'. In this urban setting, people have been employing a mixed set of strategies for implementing 'belonging' ever since. Based on empirical surveys (mapping & interviews) and research in Cambodian and French colonial archives, this paper presents the constant negotiations of private and public space in a changing economic environment from three angles: - streets, squares, and parks as spaces of interaction: the spatial inheritance of the French colonialism in a new context - the emergence of different types of gated communities since 1975: at first by spatial inclusion strategies generating patronage networks, then by urban planning separating rich from poor - the economy of espionage and imitation of Phnom Penh's retail trade: the neighbours' curious gaze Methodology - The city of Phnom Penh in Cambodia is a case study for a `rush economic evolution´ - This paper aims in one part to highlight the role and influence of place and space for a specific process: the spatial location of business sites in a unique window of opportunity as a self-organizing process `from below´. By applying spatial analysis (GPS mapping), a specific pattern of retail agglomeration and dispersion of this `atomistic´ metropolis could be identified. The analysis is based on fieldwork investigating the use of the city's space for economic ends. 1,000 kilometres of built frontage (`streetscapes´) with 14,647 cases of land use features (e.g. shops, `pavement economy´ etc.) have been surveyed and mapped. Subsequent to this quantitative part, 100 semi-structured interviews and numerous ad hoc conversations were conducted including a dozen of expert interviews (city administration, NGO, city planners). Results and Thesis - The city of Phnom Penh in Cambodia is a case study for a `subsistence urbanization´ - Much economic geography research has focused on the importance of the social context for various transactions. 'Face-to-face contact remains central to coordination of the economy, despite the remarkable reductions in transport costs and the astonishing rise in the complexity and variety of information – verbal, visual and symbolic – which can be communicated near instantly' (Storper and Venables, 2003, p. 43 ). Visual proximity and eye-contact are particularly important in environments of imperfect information, like in Cambodia after Pol Pot. Information was scarce at this time and communication hardware rare. Thus, in Phnom Penh's initial retail business formation, an 'economy of espionage and imitation' provided the necessary information for deal-making, decisions concerning the assortments of goods, prize, and trends. The first merchants and producers were heavily dependent on visual contact 'around the corner' and close contact also proved to be beneficial to customers. This specific knowledge and information externality (an externality or transaction spillover is a cost or benefit, not transmitted through prices) could only be reaped by spatial agglomerations. While screening and socialization of network members and potential partners were essential for the build-up of Cambodia's original clientele-system during the gradual resettlement, visual contact became the decisive steering mechanism for the original distribution of business agglomeration or its dispersion. For a `subsistence urbanization´, the public and quasi-public space are the most important `common-pool resource´. The influx of the population into the city produced a `non-rivalrous´ and `non-excludable´ economic good by the neighbours' curious gaze. - The city of Phnom Penh in Cambodia is a case study for a `spatial club´ - From a New Institutionalism's point of view 'City's neighbourhoods – residential, industrial and commercial clusters – are like firms, nexuses of agreements and understandings about entitlements to share and pooled resources. They differ from firms in that they are spatial clusterings and in that they cluster around resources that remain to varying extents in the public domain. They are like spatial clubs. Members co-operate by various forms of informal and formal rules and agreements in order to ensure the continued supply and enhancement of shared public domain goods. Municipal government is itself a type of club, delivering collectively consumed infrastructure and regulations from a tax on its citizens, firms and visitors. Communities, in the social sense, are also clubs – delivering collectively consumed benefits such as a sense of belonging, security and culture' (Webster and Lai 2003, p. 58). This spontaneous `neighbouring´ as 'rational herding' (Banerjee 1992; Hung and Plott 2001) helped to reduce transaction costs during the initial resettlement process (and beyond). It can be described as a continuous act of self agglomeration of business, creating bazaar-type streets over the whole of the city, which specialise in specific goods and services forming thus, from a bird's view perspective, a `mental retail map´ for the inhabitants. This is one side of building neighbourhoods in Phnom Penh. The base for this laissez-faire et laissez passer behaviorism of the government in (micro)economy was the redistribution of Phnom Penh's real estate amongst trustworthy followers. A `New property Deal´ of first in, first served allocated the built environment piecemeal. In this political economy, two steps are discernable. First, a community-building process regarding the public administration. Each ministry was assigned to a certain area of the city and in a top-down process, starting from the top echelons to the simple civil servants and officials, distributed land and housing. Initially, each responsible could pick `his´ followers and could reward him/her with the allocation of living space, a social structure, which represents a spatially bond replica of the traditional clientelism and patronage-network in Cambodia. These 'strings' (ksae) formed the first neighbourhoods as a kind of `original´ gated community because each administrative unit was planned to be self-sufficient. Each 'cité' (Carrier 2007) was thus clearly demarcated. Its decisions were autonomous, too. In certain areas of Phnom Penh, remnants of this socio-politically gathered community can be found. In a second step, and with increasing immigration, secondary ksae (the mother's cousin, the friend of a friend) proliferated and the city was being `filled up´. Today, the pattern of co-residence in technically secluded areas of Phnom Penh resembles the typical economical founded example of gated communities as neighbourhoods around the world: the rich and the better off separate from the rest. The once moral economy of the civil war and initial post-conflict years is dissolving. Regulation, commodification and the government's efforts to demarcate public and private space is replacing/reducing the common good 'public space'.

Terrorismus als politische Taktik wurde in historisch sehr unterschiedlichen Situationen eingesetzt. Als Konstanten können die transitorische Gestalt des Terrorismus sowie seine flexible organisatorische Ausrichtung gelten. In der Moderne lassen sich vier Wellen des Terrorismus unterscheiden: der Anarchismus, ethno-nationaler und antikolonialer Terrorismus, die Neue Linke und der Fundamentalismus. Das Bedrohliche an der fundamentalistischen Welle des Terrorismus sind der ihr unterstellte "Kampf der Kulturen" sowie die staatliche Reaktion auf den Terrorismus. Grundvoraussetzung für den Terrorismus, der sich begrifflich vom "terreur" der Französischen Revolution ableitet, ist die "Hardware der Moderne", die es dem Einzelnen erlaubt, zur überregional wahrnehmbaren Größe zu werden. (ICE2)

Part I -- small-state theory: reviewing the state of the art, Communis Opinio, and beyond -- The power (politics) of the weak revisited: realism and the study of small-state foreign policy / Revecca Pedi and Anders Wivel -- A theory of shelter: small-state behaviour in international relations / Baldur Thorhallsson and Sverrir Steinsson -- The graded agency of small states / Iver B. Neumann -- Part II -- agency: the art of being governed by one's own interests -- Forever small? a Longue Durée perspective on Luxembourg's extantism, governance, and security / Thomas Kolnberger -- Security in the Spanish Philippines (1565-1821): shelter-seeking and secularization in an early modern colony / Eberhard Crailsheim -- Negotiating smallness in three regional contexts: Belize within Central America, the Caribbean, and neighbouring Mexico / Edith Kauffer -- What is a small-state security policy? 'Transpolitical propagation' in the case of Luxembourg, Singapore, and Lithuania / Antony Dabila and Thibault Fouillet -- Part III -- security: defining and engaging threats -- Small states in the Pacific: sovereignty, vulnerability, and regionalism / Charles Hawksley and Nichole Georgeou -- Security and secularization in the Pacific Islands: from great-power competition to climate change and back again / George Carter and Jack Corbett -- Cape Verde and the defence and security challenges in the Atlantic corridor: the case of the approach to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) / Odair Barros-Varela -- Let's forget that Slovakia is small: GLOBSEC, status-seeking, and agency in informal elite networks / Alexander Graef -- Part IV -- governance: interactions between domestic and international norms, rules, and action -- The rise of 'democracy' in Luxembourg's second world war government in exile: agency and leadership at a critical juncture of Luxembourg's small-state foreign policy / André Linden -- Between formal and informal democracy: how the domestic politics of small states influences their security policies / Wouter Veenendaal -- African small island developing states (ASIDS) and good international citizenship / Suzanne E. Graham and Marcel F. Nagar -- Conclusion: insecurity of their own making? a comparative policy coherence for sustainable development analysis of small-state governance / Harlan Koff.